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增值稅

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1.增值稅的定義

增值稅是一種銷售稅,屬累退稅,是基于商品或服務(wù)的增值而征稅的一種間接稅,在澳大利亞、加拿大、新西蘭、新加坡稱為商品及服務(wù)稅(Goods and Services Tax, GST),在日本稱作消費(fèi)稅。

增值稅征收通常包括生產(chǎn)流通或消費(fèi)過(guò)程中的各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié),是基于增值額或價(jià)差為計(jì)稅依據(jù)的中性稅種,理論上包括農(nóng)業(yè)各個(gè)產(chǎn)業(yè)領(lǐng)域(種植業(yè)、林業(yè)和畜牧業(yè))、采礦業(yè)、制造業(yè)、建筑業(yè)、交通和商業(yè)服務(wù)業(yè)等,或者按原材料采購(gòu)、生產(chǎn)制造、批發(fā)、零售與消費(fèi)各個(gè)環(huán)節(jié)。

增值稅是法國(guó)經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家 Maurice Lauré于1954年所發(fā)明的,目前,法國(guó)政府有45%的收入來(lái)自增值稅。

增值稅的納稅人包括在中國(guó)境內(nèi)銷售、進(jìn)口貨物,提供加工、修理、修配勞務(wù)(以下簡(jiǎn)稱應(yīng)稅勞務(wù))的各類企業(yè)、單位、個(gè)體經(jīng)營(yíng)者和其他個(gè)人。

  • 增值稅稅目稅率表
    稅目稅率范 圍說(shuō) 明
    一、銷售或進(jìn)口貨物(除列舉的以外)17% 《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例》第二條增值稅稅率,第一項(xiàng)規(guī)定:“納稅人銷售或者進(jìn)口貨物,除本條第(二)項(xiàng)、第(三)項(xiàng)規(guī)定外,稅率為17%?!?/td>
    二、加工、修理修配勞務(wù)17% 《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例》第二條增值稅稅率,第四項(xiàng)規(guī)定:“納稅人提供加工、修理修配勞務(wù),稅率為17%?!?/td>
    三、農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品13%包括植物類、動(dòng)物類
    1.植物類糧食 包括小麥、稻谷、玉米、高梁、谷子和其他雜糧,以及經(jīng)碾磨、脫殼等工藝加工后的糧食切面、餃子皮、餛鈍皮、面皮、米粉等糧食復(fù)制品,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。豆制小吃食品不包括。
    蔬菜 包括各種蔬菜、菌類植物和少數(shù)可作副食的木料植物。經(jīng)晾曬、冷藏、冷凍、包裝、脫水等工序加工的蔬菜、腌菜、咸菜、醬菜和鹽漬蔬菜等也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    煙葉 包括曬煙葉、晾煙葉和初烤煙葉。 
    茶葉 包括各種毛茶。 
    園藝植物 指可供食用的果實(shí)。經(jīng)冷凍、冷藏、包裝等工序加工的園藝植物,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    藥用植物利用藥用植物加工制成的片、絲、塊、段等中藥飲片,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    油料植物提取芳香油的芳香油料植物,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    纖維植物棉短絨和麻纖維經(jīng)脫膠后的精干(洗)麻,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    糖料植物 
    林業(yè)產(chǎn)品 包括原木、原竹、天然樹(shù)脂及其他林業(yè)產(chǎn)品鹽水竹筍也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍
    其他植物干花、干草、薯干、干制的藻類植物,農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品的下腳料等,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    2.動(dòng)物類水產(chǎn)品 包括魚(yú)、蝦、蟹、鱉、貝類、棘皮類、軟體類、腔腸類、海獸類、魚(yú)苗(卵)、蝦苗、蟹苗、貝苗(秧),以及經(jīng)冷凍、冷藏、鹽漬等防腐處理和包裝的水產(chǎn)品。干制的魚(yú)、蝦、蟹、貝類、棘皮類、軟體類、腔腸類等,以及未加工成工藝品的貝殼、珍珠也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍。
    畜牧產(chǎn)品 包括? 獸類、禽類和爬行類動(dòng)物? 獸類、禽類和爬行類動(dòng)物的肉產(chǎn)品? 蛋類產(chǎn)品ˉ 鮮奶各種獸類、禽類和爬行類動(dòng)物的肉類生制品亦屬征稅范圍,經(jīng)加工的咸蛋、松花蛋、腌制的蛋等,也屬于本貨物的征稅范圍
    動(dòng)物皮張將生皮、生皮張用清水、鹽水或者防腐藥水浸泡、刮里、脫毛、曬干或者熏干,未經(jīng)鞣制的,也屬于本貨物 的征稅范圍。
    動(dòng)物毛絨 
    其他動(dòng)物組織 包括蠶繭,天然蜂蜜,動(dòng)物樹(shù)脂及其他動(dòng)物組織。 
     農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)者銷售的自產(chǎn)農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品免征增值稅。
    四、糧食、食用植物油13%糧食 包括稻谷;大米;大豆;小麥;雜糧;鮮山芋、山芋干、山芋粉;經(jīng)過(guò)加工的的面粉(各種花式面粉除外)。淀粉不屬于農(nóng)產(chǎn)品的范圍,應(yīng)按照17%征收增值稅。
    食用植物油 包括從植物中加工提取的食用油脂及以其為原料生產(chǎn)的混合油。 
    五、其他貨物13%包括自來(lái)水、暖氣、冷氣、熱水、煤氣、石油液化氣,天然氣、沼氣、居民用煤炭制品圖書、報(bào)紙、雜志、飼料、化肥、農(nóng)藥、農(nóng)機(jī)、農(nóng)膜國(guó)務(wù)院規(guī)定的其他貨物 
    六、出口銷售貨物0 原油,柴油、援外出口貨物、天然牛黃、麝香、銅及銅基合金、白金、糖、新聞紙等國(guó)家規(guī)定不予退稅。

2.增值稅稅率說(shuō)明

一、一般納稅人生產(chǎn)下列貨物,可按簡(jiǎn)易辦法依照6%征收率計(jì)算繳納增值稅。

(一)縣以下小型水力發(fā)電單位生產(chǎn)的電力;

(二) 建筑用和生產(chǎn)建筑材料所用的砂、土、石料;

(三)以自己采掘的砂、土、石料或其他礦物連續(xù)生產(chǎn)的磚、瓦、石灰;

(四)原料中摻有煤矸石、石煤、粉煤灰、燒煤鍋爐的爐底渣及其他廢渣(不包括高爐水渣)生產(chǎn)的墻體材料;

(五)用微生物、微生物代謝產(chǎn)物、動(dòng)物毒素、人或動(dòng)物的血液或組織制成的生物制品。

二、金屬礦采選產(chǎn)品、非金屬礦采選產(chǎn)品增值稅稅率由17%調(diào)整為13%。

三、增值稅一般納稅人銷售自來(lái)水可按6%的稅率征收。

四、文物商店和拍賣行的貨物銷售按6%的稅率征收。

五、寄售商店代銷寄售物品、典當(dāng)業(yè)銷售的死當(dāng)物品按6%的稅率征收。

六、單位和個(gè)人經(jīng)營(yíng)者銷售自己使用過(guò)的游艇、摩托車和應(yīng)征消費(fèi)稅的汽車,按6%的征收率計(jì)算繳納增值稅。

七、銷售自己使用過(guò)的其他屬于貨物的固定資產(chǎn),暫免征收增值稅。

注:“使用過(guò)的其他屬于貨物的固定資產(chǎn)”應(yīng)同時(shí)具備以下幾個(gè)條件:

(一)屬于企業(yè)固定資產(chǎn)目錄所列貨物;

(二)企業(yè)按固定資產(chǎn)管理,并確已使用過(guò)的貨物;

(三)銷售價(jià)格不超過(guò)其原值的貨物。

對(duì)不同時(shí)具備上述條件,無(wú)論會(huì)計(jì)制度規(guī)定如何核算,均應(yīng)按6%的征收率征收增值稅。

八、增值稅小規(guī)模納稅人銷售進(jìn)口貨物,稅率為3%,提供加工、修理修配勞務(wù),稅率為3%。

九、郵政部門以外的其他單位與個(gè)人銷售集郵商品、征收增值稅。

十、增值稅一般納稅人向小規(guī)模納稅人購(gòu)買的農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品,可視為免稅農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品按10%的扣除率計(jì)算進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額。

十一、工廠回收的廢舊物資按照10%的扣除率計(jì)算進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額。

十二、增值稅一般納稅人憑發(fā)票上的運(yùn)費(fèi)金額按7%的扣除率計(jì)算進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額。如運(yùn)輸費(fèi)用和其他雜費(fèi)合并開(kāi)列,則不得計(jì)算進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額。

3.增值稅稅率的調(diào)整[1]

稅率的調(diào)整,由國(guó)務(wù)院決定??紤]到某些行業(yè)和企業(yè)的稅收負(fù)擔(dān),國(guó)家對(duì)某些貨物的適用稅率作了適當(dāng)調(diào)整。

(一)征收率:6%

自2009年1月1日起,一般納稅人銷售自產(chǎn)下列貨物,可選擇照簡(jiǎn)易辦法依6%計(jì)稅,并可自行開(kāi)具增值稅專用發(fā)票。

1.縣級(jí)及縣級(jí)以下小型水力發(fā)電單位生產(chǎn)的電力。小型水力發(fā)電單位,是指各類投資主體建設(shè)的裝機(jī)容量為5萬(wàn)千瓦以下(含5萬(wàn)千瓦)的小型水力發(fā)電單位。

2.建筑用和生產(chǎn)建筑材料所用的砂、土、石料。

3.以自己采掘的砂、土、石料或其他礦物連續(xù)生產(chǎn)的磚、瓦、石灰(不含黏土實(shí)心磚、瓦)。

4.用微生物、微生物代謝產(chǎn)物、動(dòng)物毒素、人或動(dòng)物的血液或組織制成的生物制品。

5.自來(lái)水。對(duì)屬于一般納稅人的自來(lái)水公司銷售自來(lái)水按簡(jiǎn)易辦法依照6%征收率征收增值稅,不得抵扣其購(gòu)進(jìn)自來(lái)水取得增值稅扣稅憑證上注明的增值稅稅款。

6.商品混凝土(僅限于以水泥為原料生產(chǎn)的水泥混凝土)。一般納稅人選擇簡(jiǎn)易辦法納稅后,36個(gè)月內(nèi)不得變更。

7.非臨床用人體血液。屬于增值稅一般納稅人的單采血漿站銷售非I臨床用人體血液,可以按照簡(jiǎn)易辦法依照6%征收率計(jì)算應(yīng)納稅額,但不得對(duì)外開(kāi)具增值稅專用發(fā)票。

(二)征收率:4%

自2009年1月1日起,一般納稅人銷售貨物屬于下列情形之一的,暫按簡(jiǎn)易辦法依照4%征收率計(jì)算繳納增值稅,可自行開(kāi)具增值稅專用發(fā)票。

1.寄售商店代銷寄售物品(包括居民個(gè)人寄售的物品在內(nèi))。

2.典當(dāng)業(yè)銷售死當(dāng)物品。

3.經(jīng)國(guó)務(wù)院或國(guó)務(wù)院授權(quán)機(jī)關(guān)批準(zhǔn)的免稅商店零售的免稅品

4.增值稅的主要免稅規(guī)定

《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例》第十六條規(guī)定了下列8個(gè)項(xiàng)目免征增值稅:

  • 農(nóng)業(yè)生產(chǎn)者銷售的自產(chǎn)農(nóng)業(yè)產(chǎn)品;
  • 避孕藥品和用具
  • 古舊圖書
  • 直接用于科學(xué)研究、科學(xué)試驗(yàn)和教學(xué)的進(jìn)口儀器、設(shè)備
  • 外國(guó)政府、國(guó)際組織無(wú)償援助的進(jìn)口物資和設(shè)備
  • 由殘疾人組織直接進(jìn)口供殘疾人專用的物品
  • 銷售的自己使用過(guò)的物品

另外,未達(dá)到起征點(diǎn)的也予以免征增值稅,增值稅的減免權(quán)在國(guó)務(wù)院,任何地區(qū)、部門均無(wú)權(quán)減免增值稅,但各省級(jí)國(guó)稅局可在規(guī)定的幅度內(nèi)根據(jù)本地實(shí)際情況確定適用的起征點(diǎn)?!?

5.增值稅的計(jì)算方法[2]

增值稅的計(jì)算方法有直接計(jì)算法和間接計(jì)算法兩種。世界各國(guó)普遍采用間接法(扣稅法),我國(guó)的增值稅計(jì)算也統(tǒng)一采用扣稅法。

1.直接計(jì)算法

直接法是指按照產(chǎn)品銷售額扣除法定扣除項(xiàng)目(外購(gòu)的原材料、固定資產(chǎn)、燃料動(dòng)力、包裝物等)后的余額作為增值稅,再乘以相應(yīng)的稅率計(jì)算應(yīng)納稅額的方法。

在直接計(jì)算法下,計(jì)算增值稅的方法又可分為以下兩種。

1)加法

加法是將構(gòu)成增值額的各要素相加來(lái)計(jì)算增值額。其計(jì)算公式為

增值額=本月發(fā)生的工資+利潤(rùn)+租金+其他屬于增值稅項(xiàng)目的數(shù)額

應(yīng)納稅額=增值額×增值稅率

這種方法在理論上可行,而在實(shí)際業(yè)務(wù)中卻存在很多問(wèn)題,比如要準(zhǔn)確計(jì)算和詳細(xì)核實(shí)這些增值項(xiàng)目,一是工作量大,二是非常復(fù)雜,因此在國(guó)際上沒(méi)有一個(gè)國(guó)家采用。

2)減法

減法(扣除法)是以產(chǎn)品銷售額扣除法定扣除額后的余額作為增值額,扣除項(xiàng)目一般包括外購(gòu)的原材料、固定資產(chǎn)、燃料動(dòng)力、包裝物等金額。其計(jì)算公式為

增值額=本期銷售額-規(guī)定扣除的非增值額

應(yīng)納稅額=增值額×增值稅率

這種方法在實(shí)際業(yè)務(wù)中也同樣存在著增值項(xiàng)目難以劃分等問(wèn)題,所以該方法一般也不被采用。

2.間接計(jì)算法

間接法也叫扣稅法,是不直接計(jì)算增值額,而是采用抵扣稅款的方式計(jì)算應(yīng)納稅額的方法。

其計(jì)算公式為

應(yīng)納稅額=銷售額×增值稅率-本期購(gòu)進(jìn)中已納稅額

實(shí)行扣稅法計(jì)算應(yīng)納稅額時(shí),理論上可行,實(shí)務(wù)中便于操作,是以購(gòu)貨發(fā)票所列已納稅款為依據(jù)進(jìn)行進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅款扣除的。目前,世界各國(guó)普遍采用扣稅法,我國(guó)增值稅也統(tǒng)一采用扣稅法。

6.中國(guó)增值稅的計(jì)稅方法

(1)一般納稅人計(jì)稅方法

一般納稅人在計(jì)算應(yīng)納增值稅稅額的時(shí)候,先分別計(jì)算其當(dāng)期銷項(xiàng)稅額和進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額,然后以銷項(xiàng)稅額抵扣進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額后的余額為實(shí)際應(yīng)納稅額。

應(yīng)納稅額計(jì)算公式:
應(yīng)納稅額=當(dāng)期銷項(xiàng)稅額-當(dāng)期進(jìn)項(xiàng)稅額

當(dāng)期銷項(xiàng)稅額=當(dāng)期銷售額×適用稅率
(2)小規(guī)模納稅人計(jì)稅方法

小規(guī)模納稅人銷售貨物或者應(yīng)稅勞務(wù)取得的銷售額,按照規(guī)定的適用征收率(商業(yè)為4%,其他行業(yè)為6%)計(jì)算應(yīng)納增值稅稅額。09年1月1日起統(tǒng)一為3%,不再區(qū)分4%/6%

應(yīng)納稅額計(jì)算公式:

應(yīng)納稅額=銷售額×適用征收率

(3)進(jìn)口貨物退稅

納稅人進(jìn)口貨物,按照組成計(jì)稅價(jià)格和規(guī)定的適用稅率計(jì)算應(yīng)納增值稅稅額。

(4)出口貨物退稅

納稅人出口適用零稅率的貨物,可以按照規(guī)定向稅務(wù)機(jī)關(guān)申報(bào)辦理該項(xiàng)出口貨物的增值稅退稅。

目前,出口退稅率分5%、6%、9%、11%、13%、17%六檔。

7.增值稅和消費(fèi)稅

增值稅和消費(fèi)稅不同的地方是增值稅在每一個(gè)商業(yè)環(huán)節(jié)的增值部分來(lái)征稅,而消費(fèi)稅則在最終銷售予消費(fèi)者的環(huán)節(jié)上才征稅。

例:假設(shè)一件貨品被生產(chǎn)并出售。
1.沒(méi)有任何消費(fèi)稅
  • 生產(chǎn)商花費(fèi)了$1.00購(gòu)買原材料并生產(chǎn)了一件貨品。
  • 生產(chǎn)商以$1.20把該貨品被出售給零售商,并獲利$0.20
  • 零售商以$1.50把該貨品售予消費(fèi)者,并獲利$0.30
2.美國(guó)式消費(fèi)稅

假設(shè)當(dāng)?shù)卣魇?0%消費(fèi)稅。

  • 生產(chǎn)商花費(fèi)了$1.00購(gòu)買原材料,而它并非最終消費(fèi)者
  • 生產(chǎn)商以$1.20把該貨品被出售給零售商,而它并非最終消費(fèi)者,它能獲利$0.20
  • 零售商以$1.65 ($1.50 + 10%)把該貨品售予消費(fèi)者,同時(shí)繳交$0.15的稅款給政府,并獲利$0.30

所以最終的消費(fèi)者需額外付出10%的消費(fèi)稅給政府,而零售商則不會(huì)因消費(fèi)稅而直接有損失,但他們需要負(fù)擔(dān)額外行政工作,而原材料供應(yīng)商和生產(chǎn)商則不會(huì)受到影響,但他們需要核實(shí)他們的顧客是否最終消費(fèi)者。

3.增值稅

假設(shè)某地征收10%的商品及服務(wù)稅(一種增值稅):

角色原本標(biāo)價(jià)售價(jià)之商品及服務(wù)稅最終售價(jià)應(yīng)付稅項(xiàng)金額
原材料供應(yīng)商$50$5$55$5
生產(chǎn)商$150$15$165$15-$5=$10
零售商$250$25$275$25-$15=$10
商品及服務(wù)稅總額 $25
  • 原材料供應(yīng)商向生產(chǎn)商售出原本標(biāo)價(jià)$50的原材料,需要額外收取$5的商品及服務(wù)稅。原材料供應(yīng)商收到的額外$5將會(huì)全數(shù)付給稅務(wù)部門。
  • 生產(chǎn)商向零售商售出原本標(biāo)價(jià)$150的貨品,需要額外收取$15的商品及服務(wù)稅。生產(chǎn)商收到的額外$15中,其中$5是補(bǔ)償之前付出的商品及服務(wù)稅,其餘$10將會(huì)付給稅務(wù)部門。
  • 零售商向消費(fèi)者售出原本標(biāo)價(jià)$250的貨品,需要額外收取$25的商品及服務(wù)稅。零售商收到的額外$25中,其中$15是補(bǔ)償之前付出的商品及服務(wù)稅,其餘$10將會(huì)付給稅務(wù)部門。
  • 稅務(wù)部門分別從原材料供應(yīng)商、生產(chǎn)商及零售商收取$5、$10及$10,總數(shù)為$25,即是零售商貨品原本標(biāo)價(jià)$250的10%。

增值稅鏈條是理解增值稅的關(guān)鍵。

由增值稅鏈條可以推出以下結(jié)論:

一、對(duì)于增值稅來(lái)說(shuō),從對(duì)政府的財(cái)政收入和消費(fèi)者的稅收負(fù)擔(dān)來(lái)看。多稅率征收和單稅率征收的效果是一樣的。

二、對(duì)于增值稅納稅人來(lái)說(shuō),對(duì)其實(shí)行免稅政策并不是稅收優(yōu)惠。

4.限制

在以上例子,我們假設(shè)了在征稅前后被生產(chǎn)和出售的貨物的數(shù)量是相同,但在現(xiàn)實(shí)生活中并非如此。

8.對(duì)增值稅利弊的分析[3]

在過(guò)去的20年中,增值稅被介紹到許多發(fā)展中國(guó)家。主張?jiān)鲋刀惖闹饕擖c(diǎn)是,由于增值稅有內(nèi)在的自我監(jiān)督機(jī)制,因而它是一種比較可靠的稅種。另外,增值稅沒(méi)有消費(fèi)稅或產(chǎn)品稅帶來(lái)的那種“重復(fù)(cascading effect)征稅”效應(yīng)。所謂“重復(fù)征稅”,是指某稅種在生產(chǎn)的各個(gè)階段以總銷售額為稅基征稅,已經(jīng)交過(guò)稅的上游產(chǎn)品(如原材料)在下游產(chǎn)品(如上述原材料制造的消費(fèi)品)銷售時(shí)還需要再次上稅。在這種情況下,縱向聯(lián)合的企業(yè)(將幾個(gè)生產(chǎn)階段組合起來(lái))比上下游相互獨(dú)立的企業(yè)可減少繳納的稅額。其效果是鼓勵(lì)縱向聯(lián)合。而增值稅由于是對(duì)單個(gè)生產(chǎn)增值部分征稅,避免了對(duì)下游行業(yè)過(guò)度征稅的問(wèn)題,減少了重復(fù)征稅所帶來(lái)的對(duì)工業(yè)組織的扭曲。

對(duì)增值稅的批評(píng)主要是針對(duì)其“累退”的收入分配效應(yīng)。與高收入者相比,低收入消費(fèi)者占收入的比重較大。因?yàn)樵鲋刀悓?duì)所有購(gòu)買同種產(chǎn)品的消費(fèi)者均課以同樣的稅率,因而低收入者實(shí)際繳納的稅收占其收入的比重就大于高收入者。比如,一個(gè)高收入者的年收人為4萬(wàn)美元,每年消費(fèi)3萬(wàn)美元,消費(fèi)率為75%;一個(gè)低收入者的年收入為2萬(wàn)美元,每年消費(fèi)1.8萬(wàn)元,消費(fèi)率為90%。假設(shè)所有消費(fèi)均被課以20%的增值稅,高收入者繳稅額為6000元,占其總收入的15%;低收人者繳稅額為3600元,占其總收人的比例為18%。由此可見(jiàn),增值稅事實(shí)上不是一種累進(jìn)稅,而是一種累退稅,即收入越高者繳費(fèi)比例越低。這種效應(yīng)與稅收分配差別的目標(biāo)是相悖的。為了減少這種效應(yīng)的影響,一些國(guó)家采用對(duì)某些產(chǎn)品(如經(jīng)加工的農(nóng)產(chǎn)品)免征增值稅的辦法,以降低窮人的稅負(fù)。許多國(guó)家還對(duì)一些奢侈品(煙酒、化妝品等)另收特種消費(fèi)稅(excise tax),以增加富人的稅負(fù)。

9.世界各國(guó)的增值稅

美國(guó)的增值稅

  在美國(guó)的密歇根州征收一種稱為單一商業(yè)稅(Single Business Tax, SBT)的增值稅,這是美國(guó)唯一使用增值稅的州份。當(dāng)?shù)赜?975年開(kāi)征此稅,并連同企業(yè)收入稅(Corporate Income Tax, CIT)。根據(jù)當(dāng)?shù)胤ɡ?,單一商業(yè)稅會(huì)在2009年前全面廢除。

中國(guó)的增值稅

  增值稅(中華人民共和國(guó))

  中華人民共和國(guó)自1979年開(kāi)始引入增值稅,隨后進(jìn)行了兩階段改革:

  • 第一個(gè)階段即1983年增值稅改革:這次改革屬于增值稅的過(guò)渡性階段。此時(shí)的增值稅是在產(chǎn)品稅的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行的,征稅范圍較窄,稅率檔次較多,計(jì)算方式復(fù)雜,殘留產(chǎn)品稅的痕跡,屬變性增值稅。

  • 第二個(gè)階段即稅改革,屬增值稅的規(guī)范階段。參照國(guó)際上通常的做法,結(jié)合了大陸的實(shí)際情況,擴(kuò)大了征稅范圍,減并了稅率,又規(guī)范了計(jì)算方法,開(kāi)始進(jìn)入國(guó)際通行的規(guī)范化行列。是中國(guó)大陸最大的稅種,占稅收收入的60%左右,但存在一些缺陷。

  根據(jù)1993年12月頒布的《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例》的規(guī)定,增值稅的開(kāi)征范圍:境內(nèi)銷售貨物或者提供加工、修理修配勞務(wù)以及進(jìn)口貨物的單位和個(gè)人,為增值稅的納稅義務(wù)人;稅率分13%、17%和免征三部分。具體實(shí)施過(guò)程中,課稅對(duì)象分為一般納稅人和小規(guī)模納稅人,根據(jù)課稅對(duì)象的不同分別采取不同的計(jì)稅和管理辦法。

  適應(yīng)的法律法規(guī):中國(guó)大陸境內(nèi)增值稅的管理、征收相關(guān)的法律、法規(guī)除了稅收相關(guān)一般性法律法規(guī)外,專業(yè)性的法規(guī)有

  • 《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例》(1993年12月13日國(guó)務(wù)院令(1993)第134號(hào));

  • 《中華人民共和國(guó)增值稅暫行條例實(shí)施細(xì)則》(1993年12月25日,財(cái)法字【1993】第038號(hào));

  • 《增值稅一般納稅人申請(qǐng)認(rèn)定辦法》(1994年3月15日,國(guó)稅發(fā)【1994】第059號(hào));

  • 《增值稅小規(guī)模納稅人征收管理辦法》(1994年4月23日,國(guó)稅發(fā)【1994】第116號(hào));

  • 《增值稅一般納稅人納稅申報(bào)辦法》(1999年3月2日,國(guó)稅發(fā)【1999】第029號(hào))。

歐盟的增值稅

  所有歐盟的成員國(guó)必須征收增值稅。然而,部分成員國(guó)有部分免稅地區(qū),例如西班牙的加那利群島(Canary Islands)、休達(dá)(Ceuta)、梅利利亞(Melilla),英國(guó)的直布羅陀(Gibraltar),芬蘭的奧蘭群島(?land Islands)等,而葡萄牙的馬德拉(Madeira)則征收一個(gè)相當(dāng)?shù)偷脑鲋刀惵省?/p>

  在歐盟的稅制中,當(dāng)一個(gè)人進(jìn)一項(xiàng)經(jīng)濟(jì)活動(dòng),供應(yīng)商品及服務(wù)給另外一人,而供應(yīng)的價(jià)值超過(guò)免稅額,他就需要登記并向他的顧客征稅。(增值稅可以包括在雙方所同意的價(jià)格的一部分;或在雙方同意的價(jià)格以外再加上。)

  由一間商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)收取但由顧客付出的增值稅被稱為輸出增值稅(Output VAT),至於由另一間商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)付出給供應(yīng)商的被稱為輸入增值稅(Input VAT)。如果該商業(yè)機(jī)構(gòu)把被征收輸入增值稅的原料來(lái)生產(chǎn)需付輸出增值稅的商品,它便可獲得退稅。

  在歐盟國(guó)家,增值稅率不盡相同,最低的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)稅率是15%,然而部分國(guó)家的部分商品(如家用燃料和電力)則可低至5%。至於歐盟國(guó)家最高的稅率是25%。

  The Sixth VAT Directive requires certain goods and services to be exempt from VAT (for example, postal services, medical care, lending, insurance, betting), and certain other goods and services to be exempt from VAT but subject to the ability of an EU member state to opt to charge VAT on those supplies (such as land and certain financial services). Input VAT that is attributable to exempt supplies is not recoverable, although a business can increase its prices so the customer effectively bears the cost of the 'sticking' VAT (the effective rate will be lower than the headline rate and depend on the balance between previously taxed input and labour at the exempt stage).

  Finally, some goods and services are "zero-rated". The zero-rate is a positive rate of tax calculated at 0%. Supplies subject to the zero-rate are still "taxable supplies", i.e. they have VAT charged on them. In the UK, examples include most food, books, drugs, and certain kinds of transport. The zero-rate is not featured in the EU Sixth Directive as it was intended that the minimum VAT rate throughout Europe would be 5%. However zero-rating remains in some Member States, most notably the UK, as a legacy of pre-EU legislation. These Member States have been granted a derogation to continue existing zero-rating but cannot add new goods or services.

  When goods are imported into the EU from other states, VAT is generally charged at the border, at the same time as customs duty. "Acquisition" VAT is payable when goods are acquired in one EU member state from another EU member state (this is done not at the border but through an accounting mechanism). EU businesses are often required to charge themselves VAT under the reverse charge mechanism where services are received from another member state or from outside of the EU.

  Businesses can be required to register for VAT in EU member states, other than the one in which they are based, if they supply goods via mail order to those states, over a certain threshold. Businesses that are established in one member state but which receive supplies in another member state may be able to reclaim VAT charged in the second state under the provisions of the Eighth VAT Directive (Directive 79/1072/EC). A similar directive, the Thirteenth VAT Directive (Directive 86/560/EC), also allows businesses established outside the EU to recover VAT in certain circumstances.

  Following changes introduced on 1 July, 2003 (under Directive 2002/38/EC), non-EU businesses providing digital electronic commerce and entertainment products and services to EU countries are also required to register with the tax authorities in the relevant EU member state, and to collect VAT on their sales at the appropriate rate, according to the location of the purchaser. Alternatively, under a special scheme, non-EU businesses may register and account for VAT on only one EU member state. This produces distortions as the rate of VAT is that of the member state of registration, not where the customer is located, and an alternative approach is therefore under negotiation, whereby VAT is charged at the rate of the member state where the purchaser is located.

T  he differences between different rates of VAT was often originally justified by certain products being "luxuries" and thus bearing high rates of VAT, whereas other items were deemed to be "essentials" and thus bearing lower rates of VAT. However, often high rates persisted long after the argument was no longer valid. For instance, France taxed cars as a luxury product (33%) up into the 1980s, when most of the French households owned one or more cars. Similarly, in the UK, clothing for children is "zero rated" whereas clothing for adults is subject to VAT at the standard rate of 17.5%.

       標(biāo)價(jià)方法的規(guī)定

  • 當(dāng)交易是商業(yè)對(duì)顧客時(shí),標(biāo)價(jià)必須含稅。

  • 當(dāng)交易是商業(yè)對(duì)商業(yè)時(shí),標(biāo)價(jià)不必含稅。

印度的增值稅

  In India, VAT replaced sales tax on 4 January 2005. Though some states did not opt for VAT (for political reasons), majority of the States embraced VAT, with Haryana being the first. The Empowered Committee, constituted by Government of India, provided the basic framework for uniform VAT laws in the states but due to the federal nature of Indian constitution, States do have a liberty to set their own valuations for the VAT levied in their own territory.

  VAT - The A.P experience : The Andhra Pradesh Value Added Tax Act, 2005 came into force on 2005-4-1 and contains six Schedules. Schedule I contains goods generally exempted from tax. Schedule II deals with zero rated transactions like exports and Schedule III contains goods taxable at 1%, namely jewellery made from bullion and precious stones. Goods taxable at 4% are listed under Schdule IV. Majority of foodgrains and goods of national importance, like iron&steel are list under this head. Schedule V deals with Standard Rate Goods, taxable at 12.5%. All goods that are not listed elsewhere in the Act fall under this head. The VI Schedule is the bread and butter of all the State Govts. This Schedule contains goods taxed at special rates (more than 50%), like liquor and petroleum products. There are thus three rates of taxes in India, namely 1%; 4% and 12.5%.

  The Act prescribes threshold limits for VAT registration - dealers with a taxable turnover of over Rs.40.00 lacs, in a tax period of 12 months, are mandatorily registered as VAT dealers. Dealers with a taxable turnover, in a tax period of 12 months, between Rs.5.00 to 40.00 lacs are registered asTurnover Tax (TOT) dealers. While the former category of dealers are eligible for input tax credit, the latter category of dealers are not eligible for input tax credit. A VAT dealer pays tax at the rate specifed in the Schedules. The sales of a TOT dealer are all taxable at 1%. A VAT dealer has to file a monthly return disclosing purchases and sales. A TOT dealer has to file a quarterly return disclosing only sale turnovers. While a VAT dealer can buy goods for business from anywhere in the country, a TOT dealer is barred from buying outside the State of A.P.

  The A.P VAT Act appears to be the most liberal VAT law in India. It has simplified the registration procedures and provides for across the board input tax credit ( with a few exceptions)for business transactions. A unique feature of registration in A.P is the facility of voluntary VAT registration and input tax credit for start-ups.

  The A.P VAT Act also provides for transitional relief(TR) for goods on hand as on 2005-4-1. However, these goods ought to have been purchased from registered dealers between 2005-4-1 to 2005-3-31. This is a bold step compared to the 3 months TR provided by several developed countries.

  The APVAT Act not only provides for tax refunds for exporters (refund of tax paid on inputs used in the manufacture of goods exported), it also provides for refund of tax in cases where the inputs are taxed at 12.5% and outputs are taxed at 4%.

  The VAT Act in A.P is administered by a highly professional team of officers who were well trained by the PMT(Project Management Team) before the Act came into force. The Commercial Taxes Department ( department to collect VAT and other taxes)has also put in place a software pacakage called VATIS(developed by TCS) with intra net on line connectivity to all the offices in the State. All the documents and forms received from the dealers are acknowledged and fed in VATIS to generate registration certificates and tax demand notices.

  VAT, to be successful, relies on voluntary tax compliance. Since VAT believes in self assessments, dealers are required to maintain proper records, issue tax invoices, file correct tax returns etc. The opposite seems to be happening in India. Businesses are still run on traditional lines. Cash transactions are order of the day. The unorganised sector dominates the market. The hope of higher tax compliance and lesser evasion is still a far cry in A.P. This is reflected in the high % of return defaulters ( 14%), a high % of credit returns (35%) and a high % of nil returns (20%). That is, roughly 70% of VAT dealers are presently not paying any tax. Filing of credit returns is rampant among FMCG, Consumer Durables, Drugs&Medicines and Fertilizers. The margins are low in this sector( ranging between 2 to 5%). The value addition is not enough to yield revenue as of now. Credits offered by manufacturers compounds the problem. The question is - in a typical WallMart like purchases and sales scenario, can there be more output tax than input tax? When purchases consistently exceed sales, can output tax exceed input tax? If a VAT dealer can balance his/her purchases and sales, can there be a net tax to the State? Is there a mathematical model or paradigm which can give value added tax and which can reduce the % of credit returns. There are no ready answers for these queries. The only remedy seems to be the restriction of input tax to the corresponding purchase value of goods put to sales. In fact a two tier system can be adopted to counter the credit returns - allow full input tax to manufacturers and restrict input tax to the purchase value of goods put to sale to traders. Restricting input tax to 4% in the case of inter stat

墨西哥的增值稅

  Impuesto al Valor Agregado (IVA, " value-added tax" in Spanish) is a tax applied in Mexico and other countries of Latin America and Spain. In Chile it is called Impuesto a las Ventas y Servicios ,in Spain Impuesto sobre el Valor A?adido and in Peru it is called Impuesto General a las Ventas or IGV.

  Prior to the IVA, a similar tax called impuesto a las ventas ("sales tax" in the Spanish language) had been applied in Mexico. In September, 1966, the first attempt to apply the IVA took place when revenue experts declared that the IVA should be a modern equivalent of the sales tax as it occurred in France. At the convention of the Inter-American Center of Revenue Administrators in April and May, 1967, the Mexican representation declared that the applicationf of a value-added tax would not be possible in Mexico at the time. In November, 1967, other experts declared that although this is one of the most equitable indirect taxes, its application in Mexico could not take place.

  In response to these statements, direct sampling of members in the private sector took place as well as field trips to the European countries this tax was applied or it was soon to be applied. In 1969, the first attempt to substitute the mercantile-revenue tax for the value-added tax took place. On December 29, 1978 the Federal government published the official application of the tax beginning on January 1, 1980 in the Official Journal of the Federation.

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